share your psych/socio notes

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lilian3

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Hi,

I typed up all Khan Academy video notes from psych/socio videos and I am absolutely willing to share them with you (it's about 80 pages in bullet points).

Anyone wants to share theirs on any subjects? PM me.

Thanks

Would you mind PM me please? Thanks!!
 
Hi,

I typed up all Khan Academy video notes from psych/socio videos and I am absolutely willing to share them with you (it's about 80 pages in bullet points).

Anyone wants to share theirs on any subjects? PM me.

Thanks

Hey, it would be helpful if you can send me your notes. I have Biology and chemistry notes very detailed if you you need. Please PM me. Thanks and good luck.
 
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Can you PM me them too? Thanks!
Maybe you should just post them here to save you some time in PM'ing everyone
 
I would really appreciate it if you could send them to me. It's really nice of you to offer.
Although I haven't even looked at this section yet, I've taken introductory psych courses and gotten A+. If you need help in a specific area, i'd be more than happy to send you some notes that really helped me.
 
Hey, I left you a message on your profile page. I have some MCAT material that might be useful to your studying if you want to trade for the Psych/Soc notes. Thanks.
 
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OMG, could you please PM me. This could seriously make the difference in my score, I could really use this. Please, thanks in advance!!
 
Would greatly appreciate a PM. I have notes I can send; however, they are barely 20 pages in length.

Thank you for this.
 
Could you please PM me your notes as well? Thanks a lot. I have taken notes on many of the Khan videos, but they are all handwritten and typed would be nice.
 
Hi, would you be able to PM me as well?

I have notes on the Psychology portion of Khan Academy as well that I could send to you, as well as Biochemistry & Biology notes from Kaplan 2015 if you're interested!

Going through the Sociology videos would take me a ton of time, so this would be really helpful, and I'll be happy to return the favour!


Is there anyway I could get a PM of those Bio/BioChem notes? I haven't done any studying for psych yet (I'm not taking my exam for almost a year), but I am a psych major so I could furnish some class notes if there is anything in particular that you need to know about.
 
I would super appreciate these as well if you could PM them to me.

Currently I have about 45 pages of TBR notes that I'm currently working on that I'd be willing to share w/ anyone once I'm done with them.
 
Sorry it took so long, y'all. Have at it! I apologize for typos.

biopsychosocial model of health and illness (BPS) is a model of health an wellness —> not just organ systems; all contributing factors are important for understanding illness
Models of Social Processes
social constructionism :
theory of social understanding —> jointly rationalize experiences of individuals and others into models of perceived “reality"
Assumes that:
  • 1) humans rationalize their social world by constructing models to explain its functions
  • 2) language is most critical social system through which “realities” are constructed
symbolic interactionism : symbols take on shared meaning through social interactions —> important for small groups; 1 on 1 interaction; allows for smooth interaction b/c we agree on definitions and how to act toward objects, ideas and labels <— symbols
functionalism : society is separated into distinct factions —> each work together like organs to maintain social equilibrium; social homeostasis
  • actions of individuals & groups can be analyzed by determine how they affect long-term social stability
conflict theory : distinct groups/factions act according to self-interest, not societal stability —> opposite of functionalism
  • groups have conflict when interests collide —> scarcity, political/social power
  • views human interactions in terms of large scale inequality —> does not examine individual behaviors

Culture
culture :
all beliefs, assumptions, objects, values, knowledge, behaviors and customs within a shared way of life (society)
  • commonalities shared between individuals in a society
  • influences the attributions people make and how they label various things
material culture : objects in a society —> art, tools, products, etc.
non-material culture : non-physical aspects in a society —> values, beliefs, superstitions, knowledge, assumptions, etc.
social group : subset of society which maintains some distinction —> shared experiences, values, etc. —> sense of connection and identity
symbolic culture : type of non-material culture —> elements of culture that have meaning only in the mind —> rituals & gestures
  • handshakes, thumbs-up and social scripts all have meaning applied to them

Society, Systems and Structures
society :
2+ individuals living together and/or sharing aspects of culture
social institutions : hierarchies —> ascribe order to society and delegate tasks and roles to various groups; examples include:
  1. government & economy
  2. education
  3. religion
  4. family
  5. health and medicine
demographics : stats quantifying subsets of a population —> age, gender, orientation, ethnicity, etc.
demographic transition : change in demographics over time —> due to social, technological, health and political changes
  • population size can be affected by fertility rates, mortality and migration <— demographic transitions
social movement : group of people who share an ideology working toward a specific goal(s)
urbanization : increase in % of people living in urban areas
globalization : increased amount of interaction between societies through trade & communication

Social Inequality
spacial inequality :
unequal access to resources and mobility within a society or pop. —> relatively local
global inequality : unequal access to resources, healthcare, work/earning potential, etc. —> between nations/regions; GDP disparities
environmental justice : equal treatment of people regardless of race, gender, etc. for prevention and relief of environmental/health hazards
  • lack of which = spacial inequality —> resource availability differs from one area to another
residential segregation : separation of demographic groups into different neighborhoods —> local scale
  • affects access to resources, education, enrichment, etc.
social class : grouping of people based on social standing —> related to status & power as well as socioeconomic status (SES)
  • SES —> income, wealth, occupation & education
privilege : relative social power and opportunity —> related to social class
prestige : relative value assigned to something in society —> education, occupation, spending, titles, etc. —> related to social class
upward mobility : moving up the class system —> education, marriage, career/financial success
downward mobility : opposite of upward mobility —> loss of job, underemployment, divorce, health issues, etc.
INTRAgenerational mobility : social mobility within one’s lifetime
INTERgenerational mobility : social movement made across generations
cultural capital : non-monetary social factors that contribute to mobility —> dress, accent, manners, education, cultural knowledge, etc.
social capital : social networks and connections contributing to mobility
social reproduction : inherited social inequality from one gen. to another —> perpetuates inequality and social class
social exclusion (isolation) : lack of access to opportunity —> lack of privilege
absolute poverty : lack of essential resources to maintain survival and basic comfort —> life threatening
relative poverty : social inequality —> poor relative to others in society —> poses threat to lifestyle and livelihood
health disparity : differences in healthcare and health quality between groups —> related to demographics



Classical Conditioning
  • people learn what behaviors are appropriate in society and how behaviors have consequences —> conditioning = associative learning
  • classical conditioning : subject responds to previously neutral stimulus through the pairing of that stimulus with a stimulus which naturally elicited that response —> period of time needed to learn = acquisition
    • unconditioned stimulus : stimulus which naturally elicits unconditioned response —> i.e. food eliciting salivation
    • neutral stimulus : stimulus which elicits no initial response —> a bell wouldn’t normally make a dog salivate
    • conditioned stimulus : previously neutral stimulus which now elicits conditioned response —> bell now elicits salivation
  • operant extinction : method of extinguishing behavior which is different from Pavlovian extinction in that a response no longer produces a consequence
    • Lever press —> food —> >lever pressing……..Lever press — x —> food —> <lever pressing
    • effects of extinction: extinction bursts :increases in response rate following onset of extinction…next is a rapid and steady decrease in response rate until it stops
      • other behavior including increased emotional behavior, novel behavior etc.
      • spontaneous recovery : recurrence of previously extinguished behavior which must be again extinguished
      • resurgence : recurrence of previously extinguished behavior when reinforcers previously associated with the behavior are present in the environment
  • stimulus generalization : tendency to respond identically to similar stimuli —> responding to crow call the same as to a raven call
  • stimulus discrimination : learned ability to discriminate between stimuli —> responding only to raven call instead of also to crow call

Operant Conditioning
  • operant conditioning : organism becomes more or less likely to behave a certain way based on past consequences of that behavior
  • reinforcement : increased likelihood of behavior through app. of reinforcer
    • +ve reinforcer : pleasant stimulus —> increases likelihood of target behavior
    • -ve reinforcer : removal of aversive stimulus —>increased likelihood of target behavior
  • punishment : decreased likelihood of behavior through app. of punisher
    • +ve punisher : introduction of aversive stimulus —> decreased likelihood of target behavior
    • -ve punisher : removal of pleasant stimulus —> decreased likelihood of target behavior
  • primary reinforcer : stimuli which address physiological need —> i.e. food, water, air
  • secondary reinforcer : stimuli which require learning to be effective —> as effective as primary reinforcers when learned —> i.e. money, praise, prestige and good grades
  • primary punisher : stimuli which relate to physiological needs —> cause pain or discomfort —> i.e. high heat or extreme cold or beatings
  • secondary punisher : stimuli which must be learned to be effective —> i.e. ostracism (not really b/c of fundamental need to belong), bad grades and scolding
  • escape conditioning : learning to escape unpleasant stimulus —> running into shade on hot day
  • avoidance conditioning : learning to avoid coming into contact with aversive stimulus in response to preemptive stimulus —> avoiding going outside when you see the glare on the street which denotes a hot day
  • reinforcement schedules : how often and how a response is reinforced —> often continuous reinforcement : each response reinforced
  • partial reinforcement : responses reinforced some of the time
    • fixed-ratio : reinforcer applied after specified number of responses
    • variable-ratio : reinforcer applied after unpredictable number of responses —> root to gambling addiction —> very hard to extinguish
    • fixed-interval : reinforcer applied after specified time interval has passed since first response
    • variable-interval : reinforcer applied after unpredictable time interval has passed since first response
  • shaping : reinforcement of successive approximations toward a desired behavior
  • innate behaviors : developmentally fixed instincts —> influenced by physiology, genetics and species membership —> difficult or impossible to alter
    • capacity to learn through associative learning is constrained by cognitive capabilities
    • to an extent, our biology and genetics shape our behavioral destiny due to certain limitations and pre-set behavioral motifs
Observational Learning
  • observational learning : learning based on modeling —> watching the behavior of others and internalizing the consequences of their behavior
    • generalizing observed behavior to one’s own situations
    • mirror neurons : neurons which fire both when one performs and action and when one watches someone complete the same action
      • allow one to experience what another is experiencing
      • crucial for vicarious emotions (empathy) : ability to feel what another person feels —> learn from success and mistakes of others

Behavior in a Biological Context
  • verbal and non-verbal communication are advantageous because they allow us to communicate effectively about very complex idea —> allow for quicker and more effective communication
  • social behavior : all interactions taking place between members of same species —> built in need to belong —> evolutionarily advantageous
    • attraction : factors which draw members of species together —> often for mating
    • attachement : forming relationships between species members
    • aggression : conflict between group members and between groups —> lead to struggles over resources —> winners and losers
    • social support : finding help through social connections
  • mating behavior : behaviors surrounding propagation of species —> heavily influenced by evolution due to importance of reproduction in that process
    • mate selection : influenced by attempts to judge genetic value, overall health and potential parenting skills
  • altruism : behaviors which are disadvantageous to individual carrying them out but confer benefits to group at large —> advantageous because they improve the survival of many individuals in group
    • inclusive fitness : describes fitness of an individual in group context —> social factors such as altruism and social support taken into account in considering ability to pass on genes
  • game theory : use of math models to represent complex decision making —> decisions of group members must be taken into account —> views social interactions a multi-player games where each player must act in a way to maximize reproductive fitness

Behavior in a Social Context
  • group : set of individuals who interact and share some level of identity —> organized into larger networks and organizations (group with specific purpose)
  • role : socially determined behaviors expected of certain individuals —> dependent on person’s status
    • status : individual’s position in group or network —> based on experience with certain things
  • self-presentation : modification of behaviors to influence how one is perceived
  • impression management : consciously making behavioral choices to create specific impression
    • front-stage self : how one portrays oneself in front of audience —> doctor acts professional in front of patient
    • back-stage self : how one acts with group members away from audience —> doctor jokes around with colleagues in doctor’s lounge
  • conformity : tendency to agree with the majority of the group —> even if one knows an opinion is wrong —> adaptive due to effect of group coherence
    • humans have drive toward conformity with social norms —> lends to social coherence and stability
  • groupthink : group members tend to think alike and agree for the sake of group harmony —> those with alternative or dissenting opinions may self-censor or be pressured to keep silent —> lends to illusion of group unanimity —> often mistake such agreement with being correct —> adaptive due to improved group cohesiveness and efficiency in addressing issues —> leads to obvious problems
  • group polarization : attitude of group toward a particular issue becomes stronger than attitudes of its single individuals —> through discussion on issues —> ideas fostered through group think become more extreme
  • peer pressure : social influence of others on people to engage in behavior similar to and accepted by a group —> connected to needs to belong and esteem
  • social facilitation : tendency to perform better when one perceives they are being watched —> most effective for practiced behaviors —> opposite effect for behaviors which are new or unfamiliar
  • bystander effect : failure of people in crowd to lend help to an individual due to thinking someone else will help —> diffusion of responsibility —> fewer people present, more likely a given person will help
  • social loafing : decreasing intensity of work or participation with intent to let other group members work harder —> more likely when people are unaccountable for their work —> less likely when individuals perceive that others in group aren’t available, willing or able to complete work —> diffusion of responsibility
    • more likely to occur if in large group —> more diffuse responsibility
  • deindividualization : people loose awareness of their individuality and immerse themselves in group attitude, mood and activities —> individuals no longer feel responsible for their own behavior —> mob mentality —> feelings of anonymity in the crowd lead to behaviors otherwise off limits


Behavior in a Cultural Context
  • culture influences behavioral development and group identity —> identity influences decision making —> learning what is and isn’t appropriate behavior
  • socialization : how people learn about social norms, values and expectations —> begins in very early childhood and continues throughout lifetime
    • social norms : social rules that members of community are expected to follow —> deviance may be met with scorn or social upheaval
      • occurs through observational learning and operant conditioning —> “proper” behaviors rewarded and “improper” behaviors not rewarded/punished
  • agents of socialization : groups and people who influence socialization —> include family, friends, media, social institutions and environmental interaction
    • through interaction with agents, people learn what is appropriate and expected behavior through observation of other’s interactions and responses
    • conformity = changes in behavior to come to parity with expectations and norms
  • obedience : behavioral changes in response to command by authority figure —> relinquishing social power to avoid perceived negative consequences
  • deviance = failure to comply with social norms —> leads to stigma
  • assimilation : process of individual becoming a new member of a different culture —> language acquisition —> appropriation of new cultural norms and values
  • subculture : group within larger culture which shares same values, customs and identify apart from umbrella culture —> Amish, runners and fandoms
    • multiculturalism : result of many cultures being partially assimilated into an umbrella culture yet maintaining subcultural identities

Prejudice, Bias and Discrimination
  • ethnocentrism : viewing one’s own culture as being eminently important —> judging other cultures by one’s own cultural standards —> result of strong cultural identity —> can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts
  • cultural relativism : trying to honestly understand cultures within their own contexts —> opposite of ethnocentrism
  • in-group : group one identifies with, supports and feels loyal to
  • out-group : group one doesn’t identify with —> may feel competition or hostility toward out-group
  • bias : favoring in-group and devaluing out-group —> arise from mental divisions and comparisons between in and out groups
  • prejudices : strong and strict generalizations regarding members of out-groups —> underly many conflicts and antagonistic behaviors
    • tied to processes that contribute to prejudice —> power, prestige, class and emotion contribute to prejudice and conflict
  • stereotype : schema of particular group or category of people which believes that all members of that group have certain characteristics —> can be positive, negative or neutral —> often untrue
    • stereotype threat : anxiety and resultant poor performance experienced by a person who confronts a negative stereotype about their in-group or culture
  • self-fulfilling prophecies : people act is such a way as to confirm the exceptions laid out in their self-concept —> often a result of stereotype threat
  • discrimination : unfair treatment of individuals based on group membership —> power, prestige and class may play a role as in prejudice
    • individual discrimination : one-on-one discrimination in a specific social group or category —> man not renting out his apartment to women
    • institutional discrimination : existence of policies which discriminate against certain groups of people —> church or agency not placing women in positions of authority due to official policies


Personality Theories
  • personality : collection of lasting characteristic that make a person unique
  • trait theory : personality consists of sets of traits —> only concerned with predicting behaviors based on personality traits, not in internal mental life
    • trait : personality characteristics unique to individuals —> stable over lifetime regardless of environment
    • very little personal control over personality
    • traits separated into categories:
      • openness to experience, contentiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (OCEAN) —> help us examine links between personality traits and health
  • biological theory : genome contributes to personality —> personality traits differ due to heredity and random variation
    • temperament : baseline personality we are born with —> genetically determined —> modified by environmental interaction to yield personalty
    • twin studies suggest genetic elements to personality trait development and lend support to the idea of temperament
  • psychoanalytical theory : personality determined by interactions of id, ego and superego —> focuses on internal processes —> very little control
    • id = very basic, primitive and anti-social portion of the subconscious
    • superego = socially developed portion of subconscious —> understands social mores and possesses morality
    • ego = conscious intermediary between id and superego
    • attempts to understand inner workings of the mind —> processes that produce behavior
    • healthy personality = balance between id, ego and superego —> mental conditions are conflicts between these components
  • behaviorist theory : personality is constructed through series of learning events throughout life —> very little control —> personality = behavior
    • all learning theories apply here
  • social cognitive theory : focuses on give and take relationship (interaction) between personal and environmental factors —> focuses on learning experiences and observable behavior but also takes into account mental life and choices —> often learn through observational learning to appropriate the experiences of others —> some control by choosing experiences
  • humanistic theory : people continually seek experiences that make them better —> free will over personality development
    • healthy personality = alignment of self-concept, actual self and ideal self —> distress occurs when these components differ
  • situational approach to explaining behavior : personality motifs are situation dependent —> people have stable personalities due to individual’s unique interpretations of circumstances
 
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Identity
  • identity : person’s view of who they are based on internal factors (personality traits) and social/external factors (group membership) —> emphasis on how individual perceives self —> who they are in relation to other people
    • self-concept : person’s view of their own personality —> the kind of person they consider themselves to —> who am I? what kind of things do I do/support?
    • social identity : perception of oneself as a member of a social group —> relates to self-concept —> I am in the Aikido club because I’m a martial artist
      • cognitive component of social identity = categorization of oneself into a group
      • emotional component of social identity = feelings of kinship with social group
    • race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, etc are types of identities

Social Factors of Identity Formation
  • internal characteristic, social inaction and social structures work together to form one’s identity
  • culture heavily influences identity —> socialization teaches people what what roles should be part of their identity
  • the role of individuals is critical to both socialization and identity formation —> young children primarily socialized by caregivers —> source of variation due to various environments, upbringing styles and varying personalities/interactions of caregivers —> role-playing and observational learning
    • looking-glass self = take on the perspective (role) of another to evaluate oneself against —> helps form identities with similarities and differences to others
  • reference group : group which provides model for appropriate behaviors, expectations, values, etc. —> agent of socialization —> person must identify with reference group —> i.e. it must be an in-group for that person —> person identifies with group, group influences person’s identity —> give-take relationship

Personal Factors of Identity Formation
  • self-esteem : person’s overall value judgement of themselves —> self-concept may include the idea that they are useless —> +ve self-concept = high self-esteem , -ve self-concept = low self-esteem
    • can be influenced by social identity —> opinion of in-group influences self-concept and thus self-esteem —> hanging out with nerds makes one a nerd, but nerds are lame, so I’m also lame, etc.
  • self-efficacy : degree of confidence in one’s ability to perform tasks successfully —> affects which activities and experiences a person engages in —> thus, influencing self-concept and self-esteem and thus influencing identity —> I think I can do well at foot ball, so I try out; I’m good, so I keep doing it and become a football player and someone who identifies as such
  • locus of control : extent to which a person believes internal or external factors play role in shape their life —> internal locus of control = I determine what I do and what happens —> influences self-concept —> am I in control?
    • internal locus is assoc. with identity achievement i.e. dev. of a unique and strong identity

Theories of Identity Development
  • Freudian development : development of mental systems to suppress the id —> unresolved stages cause fixations —> includes the following stages :
    • oral : 1 yr old —> preoccupation with suckling and oral stimulation —> weaning leads to dev. of trust and capacity to delay gratification
    • anal : 2 yrs old —> conflict between parents and child —> child wants control of bowel but parents impose toilet-training —> successful training allows dev. of self-control
    • phallic : 3-6 yrs old —> children focus their sexual feelings on opposite sex parent and identify with same sex parent—> leads to gender and sexual identity dev.
    • latency : 7-12 yrs old —> sexual impulses are reduced and children focus on other dev. tasks and learning
    • genital : 13+ yrs old —> sexual impulses return and adult sexuality achieved
  • Erikson’s Dev. Stages : dev. through interactions of the self and society throughout lifetime —> broken into stages across lifespan —> each stage represents a crisis which must be overcome —> person has one of two choices ; one is psychologically healthy while the other isn’t —> unresolved stages cause fixations —> each crisis contributes to identity formation
    • starts out early with learning trust, then autonomy, initiative, industry (self-efficacy), intimacy, generativity (giving back) and integrity (happiness with life)
    • identity diffusion : failure to develop and explore identity —> failure to become a unique person —> occurs in adolescence as kids learn how to form identities and relationships
  • Lev Vygotsky recognized the role of social and cultural factors in identity dev. —> interactions with others to learn cultural values and beliefs (socialization)
    • socialization and learning experiences contribute to identity formation
    • understood as a range of dev. :
      • current dev. level : tasks that child can perform without assistance
      • potential dev. level : tasks that child can perform with parent assistance
      • zone of proximal dev. : all skills which can be accomplished with help —> zone expands as children dev.
    • a means of developing sense of self in relation to others —> i.e. identity dev. through socialization and help form others with more knowledge
  • Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Dev. : theory of dev. of moral judgement within society —> follows 6 steps in 3 levels :
    • pre-conventional morality = reward vs. punishment
    • conventional morality = social disapproval drives moral decisions followed later by adherence to social rules
    • post-conventional morality = adherence to social contract followed by universal ethical identity —>people with identity achievement

Beliefs About Others
  • internal attributions : causes for someone’s behavior are believed to be due to internal, often controllable mental factors or personality traits
  • external attributions : causes for someone’s behaviors are believed to be due to external, often uncontrollable environmental factors
  • fundamental attribution error : tendency to externally attribute the behaviors of others when judging them
  • self-serving bias : tendency to externally attribute one’s failures and internally attribute one’s achievements
  • allegiance to in-group may lead one to believe that everyone in one’s group is always right —> can lead to group self-serving bias
  • perceptions of one’s environment can affect attributions —> environments primes and activates schemas —> it’s dark outside, so the guy walking toward me is probably dangerous

Psych. Disorders
  • psychological disorders : sets of abnormalities which are maladaptive to individual —> may have components of dysfunction, distress, deviance or danger
    • whether a behavior is abnormal depends on the society the individual lives in —> statistics can tell us if something falls above or below a measure of central tendency (mean, median…)
  • classification of psychological disorders : DSM-5 provides updated guidelines for Dx of mental illness
  • the biopsychosocial model is currently the most accepted set of theories for Dx of mental illness

Categories of Psychological Disorders
  • somatoform disorders : bodily symptoms including pain, fatigue or motor abnormalities with assoc. psychological symptoms —> psych. symptoms are defining portion of disorder —> purely physical symptoms without psych. component wouldn’t be considered a psych. disorder
    • very broad and often quite vague —> routinely missed by mid-level clinicians and clinical psychologists
  • anxiety disorders : experiences of unwarranted excessive sympathetic nervous system activation and assoc. behaviors/symptoms i.e. heavy breathing, panic, fear, increased heart rate, etc. —> connected to worries about future events and hypothetical circumstances
    • generalized anxiety disorder = persistent anxiety triggered by various stimuli
    • panic disorder = frequent short bursts of extreme SNS activation —> pts may fear they will die
    • phobias = excessive fear assoc. with an object or situation —> accompanied by avoidance
  • mood disorders : defined by two extremes in emotion —> depression vs. mania
    • depression : pervasive feelings of sadness, loss of energy, interest and excitement and loss of hope —> lead to lowered functioning in day-to-day life —> pt may suffer cognitive and physical symptoms i.e. tiredness, soreness, thoughts of suicide and inability to concentrate
      • genetics may play a role —> research has shown it’s about 40% heritable —> multiple genes involved
      • genetics mediated by personality traits such as neuroticism
      • too little dopamine, serotonin or norepinephrine may be responsible —> use of MAOIs for treatment
      • HPA axis may increase stress reactions leading to depression
    • bipolar disorder : mood swings between mania and depression —> very distressing —> high chance of dysfunction and instability
  • schizophrenia : presence of +ve and -ve psychotic symptoms —> hallucinations, delusions, catatonia, etc. —> strong genetic link —> genes interact w/ env.
    • may be linked to excesses of dopamine
    • some areas of brain are smaller or less developed in pts with schizophrenia
    • psychosis = loss of reality
    • dissociation = detachment from reality
  • dissociative disorders : splits between aspects of psychological functioning and loss of touch with reality —> disruption of memory, identity or consciousness
    • pts may feel that parts of themselves or the environment do not feel real
    • often assoc. with trauma —> people may loose touch with certain memories as a coping mechanism
    • identity can be dissociated to the point of spitting entirely —> dissociative identity disorder —> each personality can lack awareness of the others
  • personality disorders : dev. of personality traits which are dysfunctional and maladaptive —> persistent over time, like personality itself
    • just as personalities begin to solidify during adolescence, personality disorders become noticeable around adolescence
  • prevalence of psych. disorders in US adults :
    • anxiety = 18%
    • mood disorders = 9.5%
    • schizophrenia = 1%
    • personality disorders = 9%

Cognition
  • cognition : wide range of mental activities ; analyzing info, generating ideas, problem solving, etc. ; cognition = thought
  • perception : organization and identification of sensory inputs
  • information-processing models : the brain can be viewed as a computer ; stimulus in —> process stimulus —> appropriate response out
    • info processing takes place in the cerebral cortex ; lobes containing primary and associative cortices
      • frontal lobe : motor control, decision making, long term memory establishment
      • parietal lobe : processing of tactic input —> somatosensory cortex on central sulcus
      • occipital lobe : visual input processing
      • temporal lobe : auditory and olfactory info processing ; emotion and language —> Wernicke’s area
  • like identity, cognition appears to develop over a lifetime
  • Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Dev. : reconciled nature vs. nurture by suggesting that children develop cognitively by interacting with their environments and relating those stimuli to existing internal frameworks
    • “results” of children’s experimentation fit into existing schema through the process of assimilation
    • new info that doesn’t fit into existing schemas changes those schemas through accommodation
    • goal = dev. accurate mental approx. of reality
    • problems with theory = he used his own kids as subjects —> many confounding variables
  • Piaget also proposed his stages of cognitive dev. : a stage theory with discrete states that all children supposedly pass through
    • sensorimotor : birth-2 yrs —> learn they are separate from other objects, understand cause-effect and object permanence
    • pre-operational : 2-7 yrs —> learn language, continue to think literally, egocentric (unable to take on other’s perspectives)
    • concrete operational : 7-11 yrs —> more logical thinking, dev. inductive reasoning (specific to general), develop conservation —> quantity remains same despite change in shape
    • formal operational : 11+ yrs —> better at abstract thought, develop deductive reasoning (general to specific), theoretical and philosophical thought, Kohlberg’s post-conventional moral reasoning achieved

Culture and Cognitive Dev.
  • a limitation of Piaget’s theory is that he consider cultural factors in his original theory
  • children in Western culture are more object focused where as Eastern children a more relationally oriented

Language
  • language develops simultaneously with children’s inner understanding of the world ; they learn to express themselves
  • language dev. in children is universal ; theories try to explain this:
  • learning theory : or behaviorist theory , language learned via operant cond., successive approx. of proper language reinforced by parents
  • nativist theory : humans have innate language abilities and will learn syntax and grammar independent of parental/adult influence
  • interactionist theory : interplay between environment and biology ; brain built to learn language, but social interaction required to learn properly and appropriately

Influence of Language on Thought
  • different languages lead to distinct thought patterns —> language helps organize and manipulate thought
  • language affects how we approach certain stimuli and how we generalize or specify certain concepts
  • language influenced by needs of a culture and that culture’s environment —> Inuits with many words for snow
  • helps us understand and frame abstract concepts and is crucial for empathy and social connection
  • often reflect how a culture thinks about certain concepts and types of people

Neural Basis of Language
  • Broca’s area : located on anterior frontal lobe of left hemisphere —> damage = difficulty speaking fluently but comprehension unaffected —> Broca’s aphasia
  • Wernicke’s area : located on left anterior temporal lobe —> understanding of language —> damage = difficulty understanding word meaning but can hear and repeats words —> Wernicke's aphasia
Intellectual Functioning
  • intelligence : ability to understand and reason with complex ideas, adapt to the changing environment and learn form experience
  • IQ : standard curve set at 100 —> 15 puts above or below = 1 SD —> below average IQ = general learning disability
    • focused on school related tasks —> math, verbal skills
    • used to predict school performance
    • limitations = cultural/racial bias, poor generalizability, poor measure for certain individuals, perpetuation of labelling and stereotypes
  • general intelligence factor : proposed set level of intelligence that people apply throughout life
    • fluid intelligence = apply reason to problems without prior knowledge —> peaks in young adulthood and declines
    • crystallized intelligence = apply reasoning based on background knowledge —> stable throughout adulthood
  • theory of multiple intelligences : each individual has diff. level of intelligence for various domains which come together to solve problems
    • domains = spacial, linguistic, musical, logical, kinesthetic and interpersonal intelligences
    • proposed by Howard Gardner
  • Sternberg’s triarchic theory : alternative multiple intel. theory —> thought processes, experience and cultural environment culminate to yield intelligence
    • 3 adaptive abilities comprise intelligence : creative (new situations), analytical (problem solving)& practical (environmental changes) intelligences
  • emotional intelligence : important to psychological and physical health ; 4 components:
    • perceiving emotions : recognizing other’s emotions thru body lang. and cues ; recog. one’s own emotional state
    • reasoning with emotions : ability to apply emotions to cognitive goals
    • understanding emotions : ability to appropriately attribute the emotions of others and one’s self
    • managing emotions : appropriate responses and reactions to situations

Heredity and Environment on Cognition and Intelligence
  • twin studies show strong correlation of IQ between monozygotic twins raised in same household —> strong genetic component of IQ, but also environmental factors —> monozygotic twins in separate households show less correlated IQ
  • hereditary influence : genetic disorders such as phenylketonuria, Down syndrome and Fragile X lead to low intelligence —> general intelligence is also highly heritable
  • environmental influence : intrauterine environment can lead to general learning disability —> viral infection, DM, HTN, drug and alcohol use
    • childhood SES influences cognitive dev. due to correlates with low access to resources, racial tension, lack of parental involvement and toxin exposure

Approaches to Problem Solving
  • 2 categories of problem solving ; exhaustive yet inefficient approaches and efficient short-cuts
  • algorithms : step-by-step procedure leading to solution —> exhaustive approach such as algebra —> always leads to right answer, but takes time
  • analogies : new problem reduced to previously known problem —> placed in context of prior experience with analogous issue
  • trial-error : repeated and unsystematic attempts to find a solution —> will lead to solution, but haphazard and inefficient process
  • heuristics : mental short-cuts —> rules-of-thumb that are often but not always true for given situations
  • intuition : based on personal perception and feeling rather than logic —> “gut feeling” often leading astray
  • these techniques are applied to medical diagnosis —> exhaustive battery of tests = algorithmic or Rx antibiotics for condition with similar symptoms = similarity heuristic, etc.

Barriers to Effective Problem Solving
  • heuristics may be applied based upon our active schemas —> a description of a person might fit them into our schema for one job type while they actually occupy another, or a schema may be primed, making us more likely to misappropriate a diagnosis or label since that schema is more “available” in our minds
  • cognitive biases : tendencies to think in particular ways
    • functional fixedness : tendency to think that objects only serve their primary purpose —> failure to generalize to new problems
    • confirmation bias : acceptance of information that supports beliefs, ignoring contradictory info —> social need for esteem
  • belief perseverance : tendency to hold to initial beliefs despite rational arguments to the contrary
  • causation bias : assuming cause-effect relationship, often based upon other biases ; may lead to premature diagnosis
  • overconfidence : too much self-confidence leading to maladaptive behavior and failure to solve problems
  • fundamental attribution error & self-serving bias : misappropriation of attributions in favor or one’s self and unfairly to others

Emotion
  • emotion : an experience related to though, physiology and behavior —> thought is never fully separate from emotion —> 3 components:
    • cognitive : assessment of significance of situation —> leads to subjective experience of emotion
    • physiological : emotions tied to arousal processes —> autonomic nervous responses
    • behavioral : emotions leading to urges to act in certain ways —> urge to retaliate physically leads to physical altercation
    • one may cause the other —> sequence varies

Biology of Emotion
  • limbic system : connects the hypothalamus with amygdala via hippocampus and related structures in temporal lobe
    • amygdala : emotional reactions of fear and anger —> couples with hippocampus to generate emotional memory
    • hypothalamus : regulates autonomic arousal responses
  • prefrontal cortex : regulates conscious emotional responses and decision making
  • emotions may be the results of stimulus, the result of the autonomic response to stimulus or the cause of the autonomic response to stimulus —> still in debate

Major Theories of Emotion
  • James-Lange theory : stimulus causes autonomic response —> emotion depends on recognition and interpretation of autonomic response
    • “since I’m trembling, I must be afraid"
  • Cannon-Bard theory : emotional feelings and physiological reactions are simultaneous —> various emotions are applied to the same stimulus (racing heart = fear, anger or excitement)
    • “I am afraid and I’m beginning to tremble"
  • Schacter-Singer theory : a.k.a. two-factor theory —> autonomic arousal is appraised cognitively as are environmental cues —> emotion is applied
    • “I am trembling and I am also near a bear, so my trembling must be caused by fear, therefor I am afraid"

Emotions Are Universal and Adaptive
  • emotions are adaptive because they allow for assessment of arousal and for communication of feelings, fears, anxieties, etc.
  • some emotions are universal —> fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust and sadness
  • emotions can keep us safe —> scowl = warning sign of possible attack —> body language is cross-cultural

Motivation and Attitudes + Theories of Motivation
  • motivation : psychological factor that provides reason for a behavior
    • influenced by needs, instincts arousals and drives
    • instincts : innate, unlearned behaviors that arise to fulfill fundamental needs —> sucking is an instinct in infants
  • arousal leads to the drive to reestablish physiological balance
  • drives : urges to perform behaviors which resolve arousal —> urge to establish homeostasis
    • thirst is a prominent drive which operates on a negative feedback mechanism —> too little water causes urge to drink
  • these are not types of motivation, instead they contribute to motivation by pushing an organism to behave in a way to reduce needs
  • drive reduction theory : people are motivated to take action in order to lesses arousal caused by physio. needs —> best applied to innate drives that are critical for survival —> hunger, thirst and even sex to a more complex degree
  • incentive theory : people are motivated by external rewards or incentives —> focuses on physical pleasure of receiving an incentive —> woman goes to work because she enjoys getting a paycheck
  • cognitive theories : people behave based upon their expectations —> behave in such a way as to achieve the most favorable outcome
    • intrinsic motivation : motivated internally —> feel good about doing hard work or achieving a goal
    • extrinsic motivation : driven by external reward, similar to incentive theory
    • studies suggest that people who are extrinsically rewarded for behaviors they are already intrinsically motivated to do eventually loose that intrinsic motivation —> person who loves to bake for fun may enjoy it less if the began selling their baked goods for profit
  • need-baed theories : people are motivated to fulfill unmet needs —> basic needs must be met before less pressing needs —> Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
  • motivational processes may interact to explain different behaviors —> people may drink because it is socially normal and they are rewarded with favorable interactions, they may be extrinsically motivated to drink if friends reward them for it or they may be biologically motivated to avoid withdrawal if they are alcoholic

Attitudes
  • attitudes : favorable or unfavorable schemas about people, objects or ideas —> 3 components :
    • affective component : feelings or emotions about an object of interest
    • behavioral component : influences on behavior —> how one acts toward an object of interest
    • cognitive component : belief or knowledge about an object of interest
  • attitudes affect behavior and visa-versa —> behaviors or food choice are constantly influenced by attitudes toward diet and health which are influenced by our own behaviors and those of others
  • foot-in-the-door : more likely to agree with a large request if already agreed with a smaller, similar request
    • when they accept that small request, their self-concept alters to include this new willing attitude —> fulfilling big request later on is then consistent with their self-concept
  • role-play : occurs when someone takes on a new role, which is strange at first yet they eventually begin to identify with that role as it becomes part of their self-concept, affecting their attitudes
  • attitudes may also influence behavior —> people are more likely to behave consistently with an attitude when that attitude is repeated and positively associated
    • coupling exercise with weight loss motivates people to exercise more than coupling not exercising with weight gain —> relates to positive reinforcement being more effective at facilitating learning over punishment
  • cognitive dissonance : conflict between internal attitudes and beliefs and external behaviors
    • people have an inherent desire to reduce dissonance —> change attitudes toward a situation, change perception of behavior or modify behavior
    • can influence decision making —> justify or rationalize behavior —> convince one’s self that smoking isn’t all that bad if I do X

Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change
  • behavioral and attitude modification are critical to healthcare delivery and collaboration between physicians and patients
  • elaboration likelihood model : relates an argument with the response of the person receiving the argument —> two routes :
    • peripheral route processing : individual does not think deeply to eval. argument —> person unable or unwilling to evaluate fully or uses a heuristic to solve a problem
      • people follow this route when they are uninterested or have little knowledge about the topic —> focus on how politician looks and sounds
    • central route processing : individual does think deeply to eval. argument —> even elaborates on argument
      • central route persuasion appeals to logic and reason
      • people follow this route when they are deeply invested and have knowledge about a topic —> weigh politician arguments
    • only strong arguments are effective through central route persuasion but both strong and weak are effective for peripheral persuasion
  • social-cognitive theory : social learning perspective —> behavior and attitudes change through reciprocal causation —> personal factors (affect, biology, cognition), behaviors and environment all influence each other
    • people learn through observing the actions and consequences of others —> vicarious reinforcement
    • ability to self-regulate —> control behavior in the absence of rewards and punishers
 
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Factors Affection Attitude Change
  • the influences that affect attitude change are categorized as follows :
  • behavior change : foot-in-the-door strategy, role-playing and some cognitive diss. reduction
  • characteristics of message : speaker perceived as being more credible will be more effective at affecting attitudes
  • characteristic of target : the degree to which the recipient of an argument is informed affects their route of processing —> influence of age —> emotional vs. rational
  • social factors : medium of communication of argument, group-think and conformity influence attitude change

Stress
  • stress : the strain experienced when an organism’s equilibrium is upset and it must adapt
    • stressors : sources of stress which vary from minor, everyday events to life events
  • cognitive appraisals : personal interpretations of stressors and stress —> determine emotional reaction
    • primary appraisal : attempt to identify threat —> if threat identified, move to secondary
    • secondary appraisal : assessing persona ability to cope with threat —> low appraised ability = more stress
    • appraisals are often influenced by attitudes toward the stressor

Stress Responses and Outcomes
  • fight or flight : physio. response to acute stressor —> real or imagined threat
    • release of epinephrine (adrenaline) norepinephrine (noradrenaline) by CNS causes release of same chemicals from adrenal glands —> extended stress response
    • adrenal glands release cortisol —> primary stress hormone —> increase blood glucose through gluconeogenesis —> continuous cortisol release is detrimental to health
  • stress reduced after threat neutralized or assessed as being a non-threat
  • prolonged stress may interact with other factors to contribute to disease
  • moderate or optimal amounts of stress improve performance —> on a normal curve —> too much can cause memory and cognitive impairment


Genetics, Environment and Behavior
  • biological factors interact with the environment to produce mental states and behavioral motifs
  • the MCAT tests concepts in 3 categories :
    • biological correlates of psychology
    • interactions between genetics and the environment
    • neuropsychological processes
  • the MCAT rewards the thinking of disease from a biopsychosocial perspective —> the wrong answer may present biology as the “basis” of a disorder whereas the best answer may present a blending of possible factors as the basis, instead
  • behaviors and psychological qualities are too complex to follow Mendelian inheritance patterns —> genes interact with the environment and personal experience to yield psychological features —> genetics provides guidelines for behavioral development, but the environment shapes such development
  • environment affects gene expression —> activate or repress diff. genes —> epigenetic changes are inherited, thus behavioral motifs arising from epigenetics are heritable
  • adaptive value : the degree to which genotypes contribute to survival in an environment —> some behaviors have more value than others —> advantageous behaviors outcompete non-advantageous behaviors

Sensation
  • sensation : the way we receive info from outside world through senses —> psychobiological process for understanding environment —> conversion of physical stimuli into electrical signals transferred through nervous system
    • physical process within the brain and sensory organs
  • perception : use of sensory input and previous knowledge to make a functional representation of reality
    • culmination of physiological and mental processing to generate conscious awareness of environment
  • absolute threshold : lowest intensity of stimulus that can be sensed —> thresholds differ between senses due to anatomic differences among diff. sensory organs —> thresholds are limited by biological constraints and limitations —> threshold is fundamentally based in neuronal potentials —> threshold crossed = acton potential fired
  • absolute thresholds can be lowered or raised on the psych. level due to emotions, priming or importance of identifying stimulus
  • difference threshold (just noticeable diff.) : smallest difference or amount of change in a stimulus for that change to be noticed —> varies among sensory systems —> change required to meet diff. threshold is based on original value of stimulus —> changes in low intensity stimuli more perceivable than changes in intense stimuli
    • Weber’s Law : change required to meet threshold is a fraction of original stimulus —> fraction changes across sensory systems due to varying sensitivity —> high sensitivity is correlated with a low Weber fraction —> pitch detection is very sensitive and has very small Weber faction
  • signal detection theory : describes how an organism differentiates between important (signals) and unimportant stimuli (noise) —> ability to detect signals in lots of noise is evolutionarily advantageous
    • ability to detect meaningful signals depends on ratio of false alarm rate and hit rate —> if hit rate >> false alarm rate, individual said to have high sensitivity —> always some amount of error in signal detection
    • there is an element of decision making in signal detection —> mediated by bias i.e. tendency to accept or deny evidence of a signal based on psychological and learned factors

Attention
  • attention : selection of sensory info for processing —> similar to signal detection and identification process
    • sensory info not given attention may be non-consciously processed by will not reach conscious awareness
  • selective attention : focus on one stimulus/task with exclusion of other stimuli —> limited by the exclusion of potentially important info
  • divided attention : splits perceptual and sensory recourses among multiple stimuli/tasks —> limited by limiting resources to each task, spreading attention rater thin
  • attention is often drawn to change —> constant stimuli tend to loose our attention rather quickly

Perception
  • perception : process within the brain which interprets and organizes stimuli coming from peripheral nervous system —> constructs “big-picture” view of the external environment —> process usually takes place outside conscious awareness
  • bottum-up processing : construction of perceptions from individual pieces of info provided by senses
  • top-down processing : brings prior experience to bear to make perception more efficient
  • Gestalt principles : describe top-down processing that organize sensory info
    • organizes stimuli into distinct forms : identification of stimuli as being distinct from other things in the background and surroundings
    • principle of nearness : clusters of objects are perceived as being a group
    • principle of similarity : objects which share similar features are perceived as being a group
    • principle of common region : objects which share a background are perceived as being a group
    • principle of continuity : an ambiguous stimulus will be perceived based on simplest possible form of continuity —> connect the dots
    • principle of closure : whole shapes are perceived when they are broken or not present in stimulus
  • depth perception : interpretation of distance of and within an object —> brain interprets difference between retinal images —> top-down
  • motion perception : brain uses info from retina, eye movement and somatic senses to determine if object is moving —> top-down
  • constancy : ability to see standard objects as having same size, shape, color or location regardless of angular perspective, lighting or distance —> allows for identification of objects under diff. conditions —> based upon previous experience with object and assoc. surroundings —> limited by decreased experience with object and.or lack of environmental cues for object ID —> top-down

Visual Processing : Neurological Perspective more detail in bio II nervous system lecture
  • parallel processing : use of multiple pathways to process same stimulus —> starts at level of bipolar and ganglion cells —> one type of ganglion cell detects and processes motion info and the other concerned with shape/color —> pathways project to different areas of visual cortex
  • feature detection : processing which occurs in visual cortex —> areas of cortex specialized to certain stimuli —> specialized areas of retina project to analogous cortical areas

Consciousness
  • consciousness : awareness of oneself, surroundings, thoughts and goals
    • only info deemed important for awareness is brought to level of consciousness
  • alertness : basis or “default” state of consciousness —> shown as beta waves on EEG
  • circadian rhythm : daily cycle which regulates sleep and wakefulness —> physiological process evolved due to day-night cycle
    • suprachiasmatic nucleus : portion of hypothalamus which regulated circadian rhythm and inhibiting melatonin release from pineal gland
    • wakefulness and sleep are opposing drives which yield to one another depending on time of day
  • sleep : multi-stage process of decreased consciousness —> important for healthy biopsychological function —> benefits inferred from impact of sleep deprivation —> may clear metabolic byproducts in brain —> stages assoc. with certain EEG waves
    • stage 1 : light sleep —> alpha waves —> relaxed wakefulness
    • stage 2 : bursts of brain waves (sleep spindles) —> transition into full sleep
    • stage 3 : delta waves —> longer than alpha waves —> indicates transition into deep sleep
    • stage 4 : deep or “slow wave sleep” —> almost all delta waves —> most benefits gained here
    • sleep cycles : mov’t through sleep stages through out sleep period —> allow for benefits of all stages of sleep to be gained
    • REM sleep : period of increased brain activity in later cycles of stage 1 —> may consolidate/organize memories from previous day
      • most dreaming occurs here —> may be important for memory consolidation
  • sleep disorders : some abnormal aspect of sleep —> leads to negative health consequences
    • insomnia : falling asleep is slow —> low quality of sleep
    • sleep terror disorder : severe nightmare-like imagery occurring during NREM sleep —> body not paralyzes during NREM, so affected individuals often flail about —> sense of total panic leading to sleep aversion thus loss of sleep
    • narcolepsy : sudden onset of REM sleep into wakefulness

Hypnosis & Meditation
  • hypnosis : state of relaxation, focused attention —> increased willingness to give up control of one’s actions —> must be willingly hypnotized by hypnotist or through self-hypnosis —> potentially helpful for anxiety and pain related to medical conditions
  • meditation : intentional/self-produced state of consciousness —> induced by systematic relaxation and shifting of a attention toward single stimulus —> result is shifting of attention away from anxiety causing thoughts and stimuli

Consciousness Altering Drugs
  • more dramatic altered states of consciousness than sleep, hypnosis and meditation brought about through drugs
  • agonist : substance mimics neurotransmitter —> enhancing natural effect of neurotransmitter
  • antagonist : bind to receptor but does not activate it —> reduces effect of natural neurotransmitter
  • reuptake inhibitor : prevents reuptake of transmitters —> prolongs effect of transmitter in synapse —> some antidepressants —> selective sermonic reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
  • enzyme inhibitor : prevents enzymatic breakdown of transmitter —> prolonged effect of transmitter in synapse —> some antidepressants —> monamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
  • consciousness altering drugs are in 3 categories :
    • stimulants : raise activity in CNS —> may act by increasing lvl of monamine transmitters (dopamine or norepinephrine) in synapse —> increased feelings of alertness and energy due to vigilant state
      • epinephrine important for fight-or-flight response —> makes sense that increased levels yields alertness
    • depressants : decrease activity in CNS —> feelings of relaxation and decreased alertness
    • hallucinogens : alter sensory and perceptual experiences —> agonists and antagonists for various transmitters
  • drug addiction : develops for drugs which activate the reward pathway in the limbic system —> cause pleasure/euphoria

Memory : Storage and Encoding
  • memory : representation and maintenance of info by nervous system —> biological correlate of learning
  • declarative memory : consciously known info —> knowledge of events and facts
  • non-declarative memory : non-conscious ability to remember how to perform tasks
  • there are various types of declarative memory storage —> each uniquely processes and stores info.
    • encoding : info. transformed into type of representation used by particular memory storage form —> occurs at each stage of memory consolidation
  • stages of memory formation :
    1. sensory memory : temp. storage of incoming sensory stimuli —> encoding here is simply conversion of physical stimuli into electrical signals —> encoding carried out non-consciously via dendritic summation of potentials
      • info remains in sensory mem. for very short period —>
      • degree of attention determines if info. is sent to short term mem. or if info. is discarded —> info. sent to short term reaches level of conscious awareness —> unattended info. goes unaware
      • info. that is emotionally significant or is critical for task completion more likely to be attended to and be passed on to short term
    2. short term (working) memory : holds items or conscious awareness —> items can be mentally manipulated, used and applied —> usually represented in memory as auditory (you “hear” it in your head) rather than visual as in sensory memory —> unimportant or unrehearsed info can be forgotten here
      • limited memory storage (like RAM) —> 7 ± 2 items at a time
      • keeping items in working memory is effortful —> new info tends to push older info out
        • rehearsal : repetition of string of info —> reciting phone number over and over
        • chunking : breaking up info. into more manageable “chunks"
    3. long term memory : more durable mem. storage —> encoded based on meaning attached to info. through existing schema —> stored non-consciously but may be called back into working memory when needed —> appears to be no limit to storage capacity

Biology of Memory Formation
  • neural plasticity : ability of neurons and glial structures to alter and change synaptic pathways —> allows for memory formation through building of new pathways —> memory may be based on pathways which mimic firing pathway of the original experience put down in memory
    • critical for learning and behavior change —> we must have plasticity to adapt to changing situations
  • memory consolidation : long term memory pathways are strengthened every time they are retrieved —> neural firing strengthens pathways —> a function of sleep
  • long-term potentiation (LTP) : molecular process underlying strengthening pathways —> increased likelihood that presynaptic input will trigger action potential in postsynaptic neuron

Memory Retrieval
  • retrieval : long-term mem. can return to working memory when needed —> for problem solving and behavior guidance
    • ability to activate particular memory based on organization of stored info —> memory encoded according to meaning
    • recall : retrieval of info. “from scratch” —> i.e. writing definition of word
    • recognition : correct identification of presented info. —> i.e. picking out the correct definition from a list —> easier than recall
  • semantic networks : organize memories in networks of meaningfully related concepts —> schemas associated with certain objects or ideas
    • spreading activation : one item or stimulus triggers activation of related memories —> related memories are brought to mind
  • retrieval cues : environmental stimuli which prime schema for certain memories —> make certain memories more accessible to retrieval
    • why recognition is easier than recall —> presence of correct answer = retrieval cue
    • emotion can be an internal retrieval cue —> memories accompanying strong emotions are particularly retrievable if emotions are re-experienced
  • relearning : detection of long-term memories which have become inaccessible for some reason —> occurs when one tries to use that info. —> remembering a language one learned long ago when exposed to said language

Forgetting Memories
  • decay : process of memory fading —> caused by weakening of connections assoc. with memory —> fate of working memory that isn’t encoded to long-term —> reduced in long-term memory by active strengthening of pathways as discussed above
  • primacy effect : recall is strongest for items at beginning of a list —> shows how circumstances of info presentation affect recall
    • arises because items presented first are more prone to rehearsal and thus consolidation
  • recency effect : recall is also strongest for items at the end of the list —> items in the middle are most vulnerable to decay
    • arises because items presented last displace those items in the middle in working memory and are not displaced since they are last
  • interference : similar info from stimuli prevent retrieval of memory
    • retroactive interference : newly learned material prevents retrieval or related memory
    • proactive interference : previously learned material prevents retrieval or newly learned material
    • greater similarity between memories = greater interference effects —> due to sharing of retrieval cues —> older memories thus have greater vulnerability to interference as new memories use up their cues
  • memories are not objective —> they are a construct of the mind —> subject to bias and influence from experience and schemas
  • memory construction : changes made to neural structure assoc. with memory —> occurs wen memory is activated —> may be changed by current environment or currently activated schemas or held ideas —> leads to altered and/or unreliable memories, esp. old ones
  • source monitoring : attributing a memory to a particular source —> may be incorrect or influenced by memory construction
    • accuracy may be reduced by damage to prefrontal cortex and hippocampus
  • aging associated with cognitive decline —> weakening of neural connection overall leads to weakening of memories —> health and strength of connections closely tied to use vs. disuse

Neurological Dysfunctions
  • Alzheimer’s disease : pattern of neurodegeneration —> begin with loss of ability to form new memories —> new mem. formation assoc. with hippocampus —> early loss of hippocampal mass assoc. with loss of new memory formation —>
    • amyloid plaques : extracellular protein deposits around neurons —> toxic to neurons within brain
    • neuro-fibrillary tangles : formations of proteins within neurons —> correlated with disease but may not be causative
  • Korsakoff’s syndrome : similar to Alzheimer’s in that new memories aren’t consolidated and old memories tend to be unaffected —> assoc. with vitamin B1 deficiency —> due to severe alcoholism —> damage to frontal cortex and thalamus
  • Parkinson’s disease : neurodegenerative disease —> damage restricted to substantia nigra —> structure in midbrain assoc. with motor abilities
    • damaged regions usually release dopamine —> mov’t disorder assoc. with decreased levels of dopamine
 
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pm me ... ju should honest just have a google doc and post link on ur post.. orsig.. or have a thread..

You are the reason we cant have nice things.

Just want to thank the OP again for doing this. Literally the best person that I have ever seen.
 
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Hi,

I typed up all Khan Academy video notes from psych/socio videos and I am absolutely willing to share them with you (it's about 80 pages in bullet points).

Anyone wants to share theirs on any subjects? PM me.

Thanks

Hi. I'm new to SDN. Would you be able to also PM the notes to me? I never took these two courses so I'll appreciate your help!
 
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Can you pm me them too pls? I haven't taken any psych classes and I am just starting to read the princeton book for it, but the info isn't sticking. I'm consistently hitting 126 (4 times) on the pr practice exams so I think I found my threshold.
 
Sorry it took so long, y'all. Have at it! I apologize for typos.

biopsychosocial model of health and illness (BPS) is a model of health an wellness —> not just organ systems; all contributing factors are important for understanding illness
Models of Social Processes
social constructionism :
theory of social understanding —> jointly rationalize experiences of individuals and others into models of perceived “reality"
Assumes that:
  • 1) humans rationalize their social world by constructing models to explain its functions
  • 2) language is most critical social system through which “realities” are constructed
symbolic interactionism : symbols take on shared meaning through social interactions —> important for small groups; 1 on 1 interaction; allows for smooth interaction b/c we agree on definitions and how to act toward objects, ideas and labels <— symbols
functionalism : society is separated into distinct factions —> each work together like organs to maintain social equilibrium; social homeostasis
  • actions of individuals & groups can be analyzed by determine how they affect long-term social stability
conflict theory : distinct groups/factions act according to self-interest, not societal stability —> opposite of functionalism
  • groups have conflict when interests collide —> scarcity, political/social power
  • views human interactions in terms of large scale inequality —> does not examine individual behaviors

Culture
culture :
all beliefs, assumptions, objects, values, knowledge, behaviors and customs within a shared way of life (society)
  • commonalities shared between individuals in a society
  • influences the attributions people make and how they label various things
material culture : objects in a society —> art, tools, products, etc.
non-material culture : non-physical aspects in a society —> values, beliefs, superstitions, knowledge, assumptions, etc.
social group : subset of society which maintains some distinction —> shared experiences, values, etc. —> sense of connection and identity
symbolic culture : type of non-material culture —> elements of culture that have meaning only in the mind —> rituals & gestures
  • handshakes, thumbs-up and social scripts all have meaning applied to them

Society, Systems and Structures
society :
2+ individuals living together and/or sharing aspects of culture
social institutions : hierarchies —> ascribe order to society and delegate tasks and roles to various groups; examples include:
  1. government & economy
  2. education
  3. religion
  4. family
  5. health and medicine
demographics : stats quantifying subsets of a population —> age, gender, orientation, ethnicity, etc.
demographic transition : change in demographics over time —> due to social, technological, health and political changes
  • population size can be affected by fertility rates, mortality and migration <— demographic transitions
social movement : group of people who share an ideology working toward a specific goal(s)
urbanization : increase in % of people living in urban areas
globalization : increased amount of interaction between societies through trade & communication

Social Inequality
spacial inequality :
unequal access to resources and mobility within a society or pop. —> relatively local
global inequality : unequal access to resources, healthcare, work/earning potential, etc. —> between nations/regions; GDP disparities
environmental justice : equal treatment of people regardless of race, gender, etc. for prevention and relief of environmental/health hazards
  • lack of which = spacial inequality —> resource availability differs from one area to another
residential segregation : separation of demographic groups into different neighborhoods —> local scale
  • affects access to resources, education, enrichment, etc.
social class : grouping of people based on social standing —> related to status & power as well as socioeconomic status (SES)
  • SES —> income, wealth, occupation & education
privilege : relative social power and opportunity —> related to social class
prestige : relative value assigned to something in society —> education, occupation, spending, titles, etc. —> related to social class
upward mobility : moving up the class system —> education, marriage, career/financial success
downward mobility : opposite of upward mobility —> loss of job, underemployment, divorce, health issues, etc.
INTRAgenerational mobility : social mobility within one’s lifetime
INTERgenerational mobility : social movement made across generations
cultural capital : non-monetary social factors that contribute to mobility —> dress, accent, manners, education, cultural knowledge, etc.
social capital : social networks and connections contributing to mobility
social reproduction : inherited social inequality from one gen. to another —> perpetuates inequality and social class
social exclusion (isolation) : lack of access to opportunity —> lack of privilege
absolute poverty : lack of essential resources to maintain survival and basic comfort —> life threatening
relative poverty : social inequality —> poor relative to others in society —> poses threat to lifestyle and livelihood
health disparity : differences in healthcare and health quality between groups —> related to demographics



Classical Conditioning
  • people learn what behaviors are appropriate in society and how behaviors have consequences —> conditioning = associative learning
  • classical conditioning : subject responds to previously neutral stimulus through the pairing of that stimulus with a stimulus which naturally elicited that response —> period of time needed to learn = acquisition
    • unconditioned stimulus : stimulus which naturally elicits unconditioned response —> i.e. food eliciting salivation
    • neutral stimulus : stimulus which elicits no initial response —> a bell wouldn’t normally make a dog salivate
    • conditioned stimulus : previously neutral stimulus which now elicits conditioned response —> bell now elicits salivation
  • operant extinction : method of extinguishing behavior which is different from Pavlovian extinction in that a response no longer produces a consequence
    • Lever press —> food —> >lever pressing……..Lever press — x —> food —> <lever pressing
    • effects of extinction: extinction bursts :increases in response rate following onset of extinction…next is a rapid and steady decrease in response rate until it stops
      • other behavior including increased emotional behavior, novel behavior etc.
      • spontaneous recovery : recurrence of previously extinguished behavior which must be again extinguished
      • resurgence : recurrence of previously extinguished behavior when reinforcers previously associated with the behavior are present in the environment
  • stimulus generalization : tendency to respond identically to similar stimuli —> responding to crow call the same as to a raven call
  • stimulus discrimination : learned ability to discriminate between stimuli —> responding only to raven call instead of also to crow call

Operant Conditioning
  • operant conditioning : organism becomes more or less likely to behave a certain way based on past consequences of that behavior
  • reinforcement : increased likelihood of behavior through app. of reinforcer
    • +ve reinforcer : pleasant stimulus —> increases likelihood of target behavior
    • -ve reinforcer : removal of aversive stimulus —>increased likelihood of target behavior
  • punishment : decreased likelihood of behavior through app. of punisher
    • +ve punisher : introduction of aversive stimulus —> decreased likelihood of target behavior
    • -ve punisher : removal of pleasant stimulus —> decreased likelihood of target behavior
  • primary reinforcer : stimuli which address physiological need —> i.e. food, water, air
  • secondary reinforcer : stimuli which require learning to be effective —> as effective as primary reinforcers when learned —> i.e. money, praise, prestige and good grades
  • primary punisher : stimuli which relate to physiological needs —> cause pain or discomfort —> i.e. high heat or extreme cold or beatings
  • secondary punisher : stimuli which must be learned to be effective —> i.e. ostracism (not really b/c of fundamental need to belong), bad grades and scolding
  • escape conditioning : learning to escape unpleasant stimulus —> running into shade on hot day
  • avoidance conditioning : learning to avoid coming into contact with aversive stimulus in response to preemptive stimulus —> avoiding going outside when you see the glare on the street which denotes a hot day
  • reinforcement schedules : how often and how a response is reinforced —> often continuous reinforcement : each response reinforced
  • partial reinforcement : responses reinforced some of the time
    • fixed-ratio : reinforcer applied after specified number of responses
    • variable-ratio : reinforcer applied after unpredictable number of responses —> root to gambling addiction —> very hard to extinguish
    • fixed-interval : reinforcer applied after specified time interval has passed since first response
    • variable-interval : reinforcer applied after unpredictable time interval has passed since first response
  • shaping : reinforcement of successive approximations toward a desired behavior
  • innate behaviors : developmentally fixed instincts —> influenced by physiology, genetics and species membership —> difficult or impossible to alter
    • capacity to learn through associative learning is constrained by cognitive capabilities
    • to an extent, our biology and genetics shape our behavioral destiny due to certain limitations and pre-set behavioral motifs
Observational Learning
  • observational learning : learning based on modeling —> watching the behavior of others and internalizing the consequences of their behavior
    • generalizing observed behavior to one’s own situations
    • mirror neurons : neurons which fire both when one performs and action and when one watches someone complete the same action
      • allow one to experience what another is experiencing
      • crucial for vicarious emotions (empathy) : ability to feel what another person feels —> learn from success and mistakes of others

Behavior in a Biological Context
  • verbal and non-verbal communication are advantageous because they allow us to communicate effectively about very complex idea —> allow for quicker and more effective communication
  • social behavior : all interactions taking place between members of same species —> built in need to belong —> evolutionarily advantageous
    • attraction : factors which draw members of species together —> often for mating
    • attachement : forming relationships between species members
    • aggression : conflict between group members and between groups —> lead to struggles over resources —> winners and losers
    • social support : finding help through social connections
  • mating behavior : behaviors surrounding propagation of species —> heavily influenced by evolution due to importance of reproduction in that process
    • mate selection : influenced by attempts to judge genetic value, overall health and potential parenting skills
  • altruism : behaviors which are disadvantageous to individual carrying them out but confer benefits to group at large —> advantageous because they improve the survival of many individuals in group
    • inclusive fitness : describes fitness of an individual in group context —> social factors such as altruism and social support taken into account in considering ability to pass on genes
  • game theory : use of math models to represent complex decision making —> decisions of group members must be taken into account —> views social interactions a multi-player games where each player must act in a way to maximize reproductive fitness

Behavior in a Social Context
  • group : set of individuals who interact and share some level of identity —> organized into larger networks and organizations (group with specific purpose)
  • role : socially determined behaviors expected of certain individuals —> dependent on person’s status
    • status : individual’s position in group or network —> based on experience with certain things
  • self-presentation : modification of behaviors to influence how one is perceived
  • impression management : consciously making behavioral choices to create specific impression
    • front-stage self : how one portrays oneself in front of audience —> doctor acts professional in front of patient
    • back-stage self : how one acts with group members away from audience —> doctor jokes around with colleagues in doctor’s lounge
  • conformity : tendency to agree with the majority of the group —> even if one knows an opinion is wrong —> adaptive due to effect of group coherence
    • humans have drive toward conformity with social norms —> lends to social coherence and stability
  • groupthink : group members tend to think alike and agree for the sake of group harmony —> those with alternative or dissenting opinions may self-censor or be pressured to keep silent —> lends to illusion of group unanimity —> often mistake such agreement with being correct —> adaptive due to improved group cohesiveness and efficiency in addressing issues —> leads to obvious problems
  • group polarization : attitude of group toward a particular issue becomes stronger than attitudes of its single individuals —> through discussion on issues —> ideas fostered through group think become more extreme
  • peer pressure : social influence of others on people to engage in behavior similar to and accepted by a group —> connected to needs to belong and esteem
  • social facilitation : tendency to perform better when one perceives they are being watched —> most effective for practiced behaviors —> opposite effect for behaviors which are new or unfamiliar
  • bystander effect : failure of people in crowd to lend help to an individual due to thinking someone else will help —> diffusion of responsibility —> fewer people present, more likely a given person will help
  • social loafing : decreasing intensity of work or participation with intent to let other group members work harder —> more likely when people are unaccountable for their work —> less likely when individuals perceive that others in group aren’t available, willing or able to complete work —> diffusion of responsibility
    • more likely to occur if in large group —> more diffuse responsibility
  • deindividualization : people loose awareness of their individuality and immerse themselves in group attitude, mood and activities —> individuals no longer feel responsible for their own behavior —> mob mentality —> feelings of anonymity in the crowd lead to behaviors otherwise off limits


Behavior in a Cultural Context
  • culture influences behavioral development and group identity —> identity influences decision making —> learning what is and isn’t appropriate behavior
  • socialization : how people learn about social norms, values and expectations —> begins in very early childhood and continues throughout lifetime
    • social norms : social rules that members of community are expected to follow —> deviance may be met with scorn or social upheaval
      • occurs through observational learning and operant conditioning —> “proper” behaviors rewarded and “improper” behaviors not rewarded/punished
  • agents of socialization : groups and people who influence socialization —> include family, friends, media, social institutions and environmental interaction
    • through interaction with agents, people learn what is appropriate and expected behavior through observation of other’s interactions and responses
    • conformity = changes in behavior to come to parity with expectations and norms
  • obedience : behavioral changes in response to command by authority figure —> relinquishing social power to avoid perceived negative consequences
  • deviance = failure to comply with social norms —> leads to stigma
  • assimilation : process of individual becoming a new member of a different culture —> language acquisition —> appropriation of new cultural norms and values
  • subculture : group within larger culture which shares same values, customs and identify apart from umbrella culture —> Amish, runners and fandoms
    • multiculturalism : result of many cultures being partially assimilated into an umbrella culture yet maintaining subcultural identities

Prejudice, Bias and Discrimination
  • ethnocentrism : viewing one’s own culture as being eminently important —> judging other cultures by one’s own cultural standards —> result of strong cultural identity —> can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts
  • cultural relativism : trying to honestly understand cultures within their own contexts —> opposite of ethnocentrism
  • in-group : group one identifies with, supports and feels loyal to
  • out-group : group one doesn’t identify with —> may feel competition or hostility toward out-group
  • bias : favoring in-group and devaluing out-group —> arise from mental divisions and comparisons between in and out groups
  • prejudices : strong and strict generalizations regarding members of out-groups —> underly many conflicts and antagonistic behaviors
    • tied to processes that contribute to prejudice —> power, prestige, class and emotion contribute to prejudice and conflict
  • stereotype : schema of particular group or category of people which believes that all members of that group have certain characteristics —> can be positive, negative or neutral —> often untrue
    • stereotype threat : anxiety and resultant poor performance experienced by a person who confronts a negative stereotype about their in-group or culture
  • self-fulfilling prophecies : people act is such a way as to confirm the exceptions laid out in their self-concept —> often a result of stereotype threat
  • discrimination : unfair treatment of individuals based on group membership —> power, prestige and class may play a role as in prejudice
    • individual discrimination : one-on-one discrimination in a specific social group or category —> man not renting out his apartment to women
    • institutional discrimination : existence of policies which discriminate against certain groups of people —> church or agency not placing women in positions of authority due to official policies


Personality Theories
  • personality : collection of lasting characteristic that make a person unique
  • trait theory : personality consists of sets of traits —> only concerned with predicting behaviors based on personality traits, not in internal mental life
    • trait : personality characteristics unique to individuals —> stable over lifetime regardless of environment
    • very little personal control over personality
    • traits separated into categories:
      • openness to experience, contentiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (OCEAN) —> help us examine links between personality traits and health
  • biological theory : genome contributes to personality —> personality traits differ due to heredity and random variation
    • temperament : baseline personality we are born with —> genetically determined —> modified by environmental interaction to yield personalty
    • twin studies suggest genetic elements to personality trait development and lend support to the idea of temperament
  • psychoanalytical theory : personality determined by interactions of id, ego and superego —> focuses on internal processes —> very little control
    • id = very basic, primitive and anti-social portion of the subconscious
    • superego = socially developed portion of subconscious —> understands social mores and possesses morality
    • ego = conscious intermediary between id and superego
    • attempts to understand inner workings of the mind —> processes that produce behavior
    • healthy personality = balance between id, ego and superego —> mental conditions are conflicts between these components
  • behaviorist theory : personality is constructed through series of learning events throughout life —> very little control —> personality = behavior
    • all learning theories apply here
  • social cognitive theory : focuses on give and take relationship (interaction) between personal and environmental factors —> focuses on learning experiences and observable behavior but also takes into account mental life and choices —> often learn through observational learning to appropriate the experiences of others —> some control by choosing experiences
  • humanistic theory : people continually seek experiences that make them better —> free will over personality development
    • healthy personality = alignment of self-concept, actual self and ideal self —> distress occurs when these components differ
  • situational approach to explaining behavior : personality motifs are situation dependent —> people have stable personalities due to individual’s unique interpretations of circumstances
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